Comparison of Autonomy, Differentiation, and Parental Boundaries of Teenage Daughters of Working and Stay-at-Home Mothers

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 . Master of Family Counseling, Institute of Ethics and Education, Qom

2 . Assistant Professor of Psychology, Higher Education Complex of Islamic Humanities, Al-Mustafa International University, Qom, Iran.

3 .Assistant Professor of Psychology, Higher Education Complex of Islamic Humanities, Al-Mustafa International University, Qom, Iran.

Abstract

Extended Abstract
 
Introduction and Objectives: Adolescence is a critical stage marked by identity crisis and the struggle to achieve independence. During this period, the adolescent seeks a realistic self-definition and social approval is of vital importance. Despite the evolving role of fathers, mothers still act as the primary caregivers in the upbringing process. On the other hand, one of the most significant social changes in recent decades is the substantial increase in the economic participation and employment of mothers. This structural transformation has been accompanied by changes in the patterns of maternal presence and the quality of mother-child interaction within the family, consequently leaving significant impacts on the psychosocial development of adolescents, especially girls. Maternal employment can influence key developmental concepts of adolescence. These include “autonomy,” meaning the capacity for independent decision-making in emotional, behavioral, and value-related dimensions; “differentiation,” which refers to a healthy balance between maintaining emotional connection with the family and achieving emotional and intellectual independence; and “parental boundaries,” which indicate the limits, rules, and quality of parent-child relationships. Examining these differences can provide valuable insights for counselors, therapists, and policymakers to design appropriate interventions and educational programs, thereby helping to improve adolescent development and strengthen healthy family relationships, especially the mother-daughter relationship. The main hypotheses are: 1. The level of autonomy (emotional, behavioral, and value-related independence in decision-making) differs between these two groups. 2. The level of differentiation (balance between emotional connection with the family and maintaining emotional independence) differs between them. 3. Parental boundaries (limits, rules, and quality of parent-child relationships) differ in their families.
Method: In terms of objective, this research is applied, and in terms of data collection method, it is descriptive and causal-comparative. The statistical population includes all adolescent girls studying in the second cycle of secondary education (ages 14-17) in the city of Qom. Due to the natural grouping of subjects based on their mothers’ employment status (employed or stay-at-home), convenience sampling was used. Based on a general empirical rule, the initial sample size was estimated at approximately 75 individuals. However, to ensure greater reliability, increase statistical power for detecting small effects, and account for potential sample attrition, this number was increased to 100. Ultimately, the final sample consisted of 50 adolescent girls with employed mothers and 50 adolescent girls with stay-at-home mothers. To measure the research variables, three standardized instruments were used: 1. *The Self-Differentiation Inventory* (Drake & Murdock, 2015): This tool has 20 items and four subscales. The reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) of this questionnaire in the present study was 0.76 for the total scale and between 0.65 and 0.80 for the subscales. 2. *The Emotional Autonomy Scale* (Silverberg & Steinberg, 1986): This questionnaire has 12 items and four subscales. The total reliability of this instrument in the current study, using Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.86. 3. *The Parental Boundaries Questionnaire* (Houshyari, 2020/1399): This researcher-made questionnaire is based on Islamic-psychological foundations and has 34 items. The total reliability of this questionnaire in this research was 0.90, and the reliability of its subscales was between 0.70 and 0.80. Finally, the collected data were analyzed using appropriate statistical methods for comparing the means of two independent groups (girls with employed mothers and girls with stay-at-home mothers).
Findings: The findings of this research indicated: For the first hypothesis (autonomy): At the overall level, there was no significant difference between the two groups (P=0.289). However, differences were observed in the subscales: Girls with stay-at-home mothers had higher scores in parental deidealization (14.5 > 12.7) and perceiving parents as people (8.3 > 7.5). Conversely, girls with employed mothers showed a higher score in non-dependency (9.3 > 7.6). All these differences were significant at the P<0.001 level. For the second hypothesis (differentiation): All differences were in favor of girls with stay-at-home mothers and were significant. Girls with employed mothers had a higher total differentiation score (indicating lower differentiation) (44.8 > 38.4 with P<0.001). Also, in all subscales, including need for approval (16.1 > 13.1), emotional instability (12.7 > 10.8), and emotional and behavioral fusion (16.1 > 14.4), the scores of the group with employed mothers were significantly higher. For the third hypothesis (parental boundaries): At the overall level and in the two subscales of shared boundaries and parenting boundaries, no significant difference was found between the two groups. The only significant difference was observed in the child boundaries subscale, where girls with stay-at-home mothers obtained a higher score (26.2 > 23.7 with P=0.020).Key Result: Although the overall level of autonomy and parental boundaries was similar in the two groups, the pattern of achieving autonomy was different (less dependency in one group, more deidealization in the other). More importantly, girls with employed mothers reported lower levels of differentiation (i.e., higher emotional dependency, instability, and need for approval) and less adherence to child boundaries.
Discussion and Conclusion: The findings of this study showed that the overall level of autonomy between girls with employed mothers and stay-at-home mothers was not significantly different. This result may indicate that other factors such as parenting style or the family’s socio-economic status have a stronger influence on this variable, or that both groups of mothers (employed and stay-at-home) effectively contribute to the development of their daughters’ autonomy in different ways. However, significant differences were observed in the autonomy subscales: girls with stay-at-home mothers scored higher in parental deidealization and perceiving parents as people. This could be due to greater realism resulting from prolonged coexistence or even a critical view of the traditional role of housekeeping. In contrast, girls with employed mothers showed greater non-dependency, likely due to early acceptance of responsibilities and reduced emotional dependency in the mother’s absence. Regarding differentiation, the results were clearly in favor of girls with stay-at-home mothers. This group had a lower total score (i.e., higher differentiation) and lower levels of need for approval, emotional instability, and emotional and behavioral fusion. The full-time presence of the mother may provide a safer space for processing emotions and forming an independent identity. In contrast, pressures arising from maternal employment and possibly compensatory parenting styles (such as leniency) could challenge the development of this ability in girls with employed mothers. Finally, parental boundaries at the overall level did not differ between the two groups, indicating that maternal employment alone does not have a decisive effect on the overall observance of these limits. The only significant difference was in the child boundaries subscale, where girls with stay-at-home mothers performed better. This is likely due to more interactions and continuous training within families with a more traditional structure. It can be said that although maternal employment does not directly affect the overall level of autonomy and parental boundaries, it clearly influences the pattern of achieving autonomy and, especially, the development of emotional differentiation. Girls with employed mothers experience more practical independence but may face challenges in developing emotional independence and healthy separation from the family.
Acknowledgments: With deep gratitude and appreciation to my parents who raised me in an environment full of knowledge and culture, and to my spouse, whose constant help and companionship made my presence on this educational path possible, and to all the professors and scholars from whose sea of knowledge and wisdom I benefited throughout my studies, especially the esteemed professor, Hojjat al-Islam wal-Muslimin Dr. Jafar Houshyari, and Professor Dr. Hasan Taghian.
Conflict of Interest: According to the authors’ statement, there is no conflict of interest related to this study.

Keywords

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